Cold Open - Expulsion

It’s October 27th, 1938 inside a modest apartment in Hanover, Germany.

22-year-old Berta Grynszpan sits and eats with her parents around their dining table. As they talk over dinner, there’s only one topic to discuss: the worsening situation for Jews in Germany.

Berta’s father has been able to make a modest living as a tailor, but ever since Adolf Hitler took power five years ago, life has become increasingly difficult. First came a boycott of Jewish businesses and then came more laws segregating Jews from so-called Aryans, people deemed pure-blooded Germans. Hitler has made it clear his goal is to make Germany Judenrein, free of Jews.

The dinner conversation does nothing for their appetite though. The Grynszpan family take their final bites and Berta begins clearing the table. As she washes the dishes in the sink, she can still hear her parents debating in the other room. As always, they come back to the same question. Is it time for them to go? Their family has been in Germany since 1911. But if they were to leave, it’s unclear where they could go. After Germany invaded Austria earlier this year, Jewish refugees were turned away by countries around the world. It’s clear Jews aren’t welcome almost anywhere.

Berta finishes washing the dishes and pulls a steaming kettle from the stove. She brings it and some tea to her family at the dining table, pouring hot water for her parents, before serving herself.

But as Berta sits down to enjoy her tea, there’s a loud knock at the door. Berta’s father gets up to see who it is.

As soon as he opens the door, two German police officers make their way inside. They tell the family to gather whatever they can in one suitcase each. The Grynszpans are being deported to Poland. They will have to leave the rest of their belongings behind.

Berta's heart races. She dashes to her room, her hands trembling as she grabs at cherished belongings and frantically packs the suitcase. With every second that passes, Berta's new reality begins to sink in. 

The Grynszpans will be among approximately 17,000 Polish Jews deported by the Nazi regime in October 1938. They will be sent to the Polish border, but Poland will deny them entry. Berta will write a postcard to her younger brother Herschel in Paris, describing the family’s violent expulsion and the inhumane conditions at the makeshift refugee camp on the Polish-German border.

Herschel’s anger over his family's treatment will drive him to attack a German diplomat. And in response, the Nazis will seize on Herschel’s actions to launch a long-planned attack on the Jewish community. This violence will come to be known as Kristallnacht, an infamous turning point for the lives of Jews under Nazi control, one that began on November 9th, 1938.

Introduction

From Noiser and Airship, I’m Lindsay Graham and this is History Daily.

History is made every day. On this podcast—every day—we tell the true stories of the people and events that shaped our world.

Today is November 9th, 1938: Kristallnacht: The Nazis’ “Night of Broken Glass”.

Act One: Assassination

It’s November 7th, 1938 in Paris, 11 days after Germany expelled 17,000 Polish Jews.

Seventeen-year-old Herschel Grynszpan sits on the Paris Metro. The young German Jew taps his foot nervously.

Herschel fled Germany to Paris two years ago. As a Jew, he was prohibited from leaving Germany with any money, making life in Paris lonely and difficult.

The past few days have been even harder than usual. Recently, Herschel received an urgent postcard from his sister, Berta. She and their parents were deported to the Polish border but Poland refused to let any Jews enter and conditions are growing desperate for his family and others.

After reading more about the brutal deportations in the Yiddish newspaper, Herschel was overcome with anguish and rage. He refuses to stand idly by and watch the oppression of his people, so he went out and bought a pistol. Now that gun is resting in the pocket of his overcoat as he travels to the German embassy in Paris, where Herschel plans to assassinate the German ambassador.

Herschel's train comes to a stop, and he walks off, out into the streets surrounding the embassy. As he approaches the building, Herschel draws a deep breath. To gain access to the embassy, he introduces himself as a German citizen and tells the doorman he has a piece of very valuable intelligence for the ambassador. The doorman informs him that the ambassador has just left and directs Herschel to the office of another official, German diplomat Ernst vom Rath.

As Herschel enters Vom Rath’s office, the German greets the dark-haired young man politely. He inquires about the important document that Herschel claims to have. Herschel stares intently at the German diplomat for a moment. He doesn’t know anything about this man, but he knows he works for the same government that has been tormenting his family. So without hesitation, Herschel pulls the pistol from his jacket. He curses Vom Rath, and then shouts, “Here, in the name of persecuted Jews, is your document!”

Herschel pulls the trigger five times. Two bullets strike Vom Rath and he falls to the ground. But he’s still conscious. Herschel stands over the wounded diplomat in shock. Vom Rath groans in pain as his blood seeps onto the floor. But Herschel doesn’t move. He just stands there as other embassy officials cry out for help. Even as Vom Rath is taken away in an ambulance, Herschel remains at the scene of the crime. When the French police arrive, Herschel surrenders without resistance.

At the police station, officers begin questioning Herschel. They want to know why this unassuming teenager would try to murder a diplomat. Under interrogation, Herschel makes his motives clear. He explains that he shot Vom Rath to avenge his parents. He decries the oppression of the Jewish people by the Nazis. He tells his interrogators “He’s not a dog.” He and his people have a right to live and exist freely.

But Herschel’s act of resistance does not achieve his goals. News of his crime spreads quickly, and the Nazis jump on the shooting as a pretext to advance more anti-Jewish policies. The next day after Herschel’s assassination attempt, the German regime shuts down all Jewish newspapers. They also ban all Jewish cultural activities and bar Jewish children from attending Aryan schools.

The Nazi minister of propaganda seizes on Herschel’s solitary act as an opportunity to amplify the Nazis’ anti-Semitic message. He orders every newspaper to publish a front page story about Herschel’s attack. Alongside this, he demands editorials that further vilify the Jewish community.

All across Germany and Austria, newspapers make it clear that Jews should no longer be accepted in public spaces. The stories and editorials demand severe consequences for the shooting of Vom Rath. Herschel’s act is not reported as a random solitary act. But instead, it is portrayed as evidence of a vast and imminent Jewish threat.

In a few cities across Germany and Nazi-controlled Austria, anti-Jewish demonstrations spark. Two synagogues are burned down and rioters break the windows of some Jewish shops. But these sporadic acts of anti-Jewish violence are just the beginning.

Two days after he was shot, Vom Rath dies in the hospital. His passing offers Nazi leaders the ideal justification to advance further their plot against Germany’s Jews. On the evening of Vom Rath’s death, Nazi leaders are gathered to celebrate the 15th anniversary of the Beer Hall Putsch, Hitler’s first attempt to seize power in Germany. When they discuss the news from Paris of Vom Rath’s death, they decide to encourage more attacks against Jewish homes and businesses.

Anti-Jewish riots are already routine in Nazi Germany, but this time the Nazis order German police to stand down. There will be no protection for the Jewish people once the mob violence is set in motion.

And then after the Nazi gathering, messages will be sent by telegram to prepare for a wave of actions against German and Austrian Jews. The violence will begin immediately. And with Nazi support, it will rage throughout the next day leaving the Jewish community in shock.

Act Two: The Violence Begins

It’s in the middle of the night on November 9th, 1938 in Emden, a city in northwest Germany.

13-year-old Sophie Nussbaum is fast asleep in her bed when a loud knocking at the door wakes her up. She jolts upright, immediately frightened by the thought of who could be on her doorstep.

As a Jewish German, Sophie has felt increasingly vulnerable. Ever since the Nazis took power, life for the Nussbaums has been hard. But things are quickly escalating. The Nazis have implemented a series of laws to ostracize Jews like Sophie and her family from broader German society. Her father’s small grocery shop now has a placard, marking it clearly as Jewish-owned. And Sophie worries more and more for her family’s safety.

As Sophie tries to rouse herself from bed, she hears angry shouting. Furious voices make threats, demanding Sophie’s family to open the door. Sophie has gotten used to anti-Semitic verbal abuse. But tonight feels frightening in a new way, there is a mob outside.

And soon, a thrown rock shatters the windows of Sophie’s home. The cold night air rushes in, along with armed members of the SS, Hitler’s main paramilitary group. Sophie recognizes them by their jet black uniforms. Thinking they’re being deported, Sophie and her mother rush to gather valuables. But one of the men hits Sophie’s mother with his gun, forcing her to drop her possessions.

Then Sophie and her mother are led by gunpoint to a nearby school. Sophie shudders as more and more of her Jewish neighbors are brought to the building. At one point Sophie recognizes the local butcher and his family. The butcher is Jewish, but his wife is not and their children cry out in confusion because they haven’t been raised as Jews. But the SS officers don’t care and shout at the children to be silent. One SS officer explains that they may not be Jews by religion, but they are Jewish by blood.

Once all of the Jews in the neighborhood have been rounded up, the SS order them to lie face down on the ground. Sophie’s heart pounds. She’s certain that they’re all about to be shot dead. But without explanation her and her neighbors are ordered right back to their feet.

Sophie and the others are kept outside in the cold until the sun begins to rise. At which point, the SS forces everyone into the school’s gymnasium. There, they call every Jewish resident’s name one by one. When they are done, they release all the prisoners, except for the men.

Sophie and her mother return home trembling. When they arrive at their house, there’s an SS officer patrolling the street and broken glass everywhere. Her father's shop is a mess. Sophie tries to go inside and salvage whatever possible, but the SS officer forbids her. The shop belongs to the state now. 

***

The arrests and destruction of Jewish shops in Emden are not isolated. All across Germany and Austria, attacks are carried out, orchestrated by the SS and the SA, another Nazi paramilitary group. Members of the Hitler youth are also encouraged to take part in the violence. In some cases, teachers arm schoolchildren with sticks and clubs and urge them to join in the destruction.

Jewish shops are not the only targets of Nazi terror. Throughout the region, Jewish holy spaces are desecrated. Mobs vandalize Jewish cemeteries, loot synagogues and set them ablaze. Crowds burn prayer books and Torah scrolls. All the while, firefighters stand idly by, only acting if the flames threaten non-Jewish businesses or homes.

As synagogues burn and shops are looted, thousands of Jewish men are rounded up and sent to concentration camps. Throughout the day, journalists report on the events, describing the large number of German bystanders. Many are passive and silent. But others cheer the smashing and burning of Jewish homes and businesses.

Finally at 5 PM on November 10th, Nazi leaders give an order to stop the so-called demonstrations. The command is broadcast over the radio across Germany and police officers intervene at last. As night falls, Jewish shops, schools, and homes across two countries are devastated. In many places, synagogues are still burning.

When it’s all over, Nazi officials will euphemistically call the riots and destruction: "Kristallnacht" or “The Night of Broken Glass.” The name tries to conceal the full extent of the devastation because much more than glass was broken.

Over the course of two days, at least 96 Jews were killed and hundreds more injured. Between 1,300 and 2,000 synagogues were burned to the ground. 7,500 Jewish businesses are in ruins along with cemeteries and schools. Tens of thousands of Jewish men between the ages of 16 and 60 were arrested and sent to concentration camps.

The violence will send a clear message: the Nazis are intent on removing Jews from German life. And it appears that no one will stand in their way. Emboldened by Kristallnacht, the Nazis will arrange a plan for even harsher persecution.

Act Three: The Aftermath

It’s the morning of November 12th, 1938 in Berlin, two days after the Nazis finished their countrywide attacks on Jewish communities.

Field Marshal Hermann Göring calls a meeting to order.

Since the Nazis took power in 1933, they have steadily enacted more than 400 laws segregating and restricting Jewish life in Germany. The Nazis have not yet fully removed Jews from German society. But after the events of November 9th and 10th, there seem to be new possibilities. Today Göring is eager to identify an answer to what Hitler calls “the Jewish question.”

Göring makes it clear in this meeting that the Nazis cannot waste any time dealing with Germany’s Jews. Today he and the other ministers in attendance must make a plan to get the Jews out of the German economy once and for all. He begins with a proposal. The Nazis will punish Germany’s Jews for the destruction of Kristallnacht. In Göring’s mind, it is the Jews who are to blame for what happened, and so he proposes a restitution of 1 billion reichsmarks, approximately $8 billion today. Göring is convinced that will teach German Jews a lesson that they will not forget.

But Göring and the ministers don’t stop there. They decide that any money paid from insurance for the destruction of Jewish homes or shops will go to the Nazi government. They also draft a decree which bars Jews from selling goods and services or participating in a trade. Germany’s Jews will be cut out of the economy altogether. And as Göring brings the meeting to a close, he's confident that he and the other ministers have a plan that will satisfy their leader, Adolf Hitler.

Under a new decree, Germany’s Jews will have two choices: starve or leave. In the months that follow, Göring will implement more laws that further restrict Jewish life under the Nazi regime. This legislation will set the stage for the genocide of Jews as well as other groups deemed undesirable by the Nazis, including Romani people, people with disabilities, and gay people. By the time the Nazi regime is finally defeated in 1945, more than 6 million Jews will be murdered, an unspeakable tragedy foreshadowed by the violence of Kristallnacht on November 9th, 1938.

Outro

Next on History Daily: November 10th, 1969. “Sesame Street” debuts on American television and goes on to become the most widely viewed children’s program in the world.

From Noiser and Airship, this is History Daily, hosted, edited, and executive produced by me, Lindsay Graham.

Audio editing by Muhammad Shahzaib.

Sound design by Katrina Zemrak.

Music by Lindsay Graham.

This episode is written and researched by Ruben Abrahams Brosbe.

Executive Producers are Alexandra Currie-Buckner for Airship, and Pascal Hughes for Noiser.