Cold Open - Nero’s death

CONTENT WARNING: This episode contains references to suicide that may not be suitable for all audiences.

It’s June 9th, 68 CE in Ancient Rome.

In a villa just outside the city, Emperor Nero, ruler of the Roman Empire, paces through a courtyard, rereading a letter that came for him this morning.

It’s from the Senate – the body of officials that govern Rome alongside him. After years of being at odds with the cruel and tyrannical Nero, the Senators have declared him a public enemy and sentenced him to death.

Upon receiving word of his condemnation, Nero fled his palace and headed to the villa of one of his few remaining loyal subjects. And it’s here that he has decided to take his own life.

Nero crumples the Senate’s letter. Then, with trembling hands, he draws a pair of matching daggers from their sheaths. But before he can plunge them into his body, Nero loses his nerve.

He throws the blades onto the ground and resumes his pacing. He’s a dead man walking, whether he takes matters into his own hands or surrenders. But he wants to hang onto whatever control he still has over his fate.

In a fit of desperation, he implores one of his servants to kill themselves first, to help bolster his own resolve. But the servant refuses.

Distraught, Nero picks back up one of the daggers. He runs his finger across the blade, uncertain what to do with it. The metal’s glint instills a terror in him. He can’t bear to use it. 

But, then, he hears a sound that makes up his mind for him: the drumming hoofbeats of approaching cavalry.

The Senate has found him. There’s no time to waste. Nero runs toward a member of his staff, and with help, he drags the dagger across his throat.

Nero’s death will herald a period of civil war. For a year, several high-ranking men will battle for control, but Roman commander Vespasian will come out on top as the empire’s new leader, and starting a new dynasty. Eventually, his sons Titus and Domitian will follow in his footsteps, taking their turns as Emperor.

But it’s his youngest son, Domitian, who will cause the most controversy. While his father and elder sibling will be generally well-liked, Domitian’s reign will be characterized by paranoia and violence, and like Nero before him, Domitian will attract the wrath of the Senate, leading to his downfall and death on September 18th, 96 CE.

Introduction

From Noiser and Airship, I’m Lindsay Graham and this is History Daily.

History is made every day. On this podcast—every day—we tell the true stories of the people and events that shaped our world.

Today is September 18th, 96 CE: The Assassination of Domitian.

Act One

It’s September 12th, 81 CE, thirteen years after the death of Emperor Nero.

In a villa in the Sabine Hills just north of Rome, the empire’s new ruler, Titus, lays motionless in bed, his skin clammy and his hair lank with sweat.

For the last two years, Titus has been a pillar of strength for the people of Rome, leading them through great hardship. Since his rise to the throne, Titus has had to deal with disaster after disaster. Just a few months after becoming emperor, the volcano at Mount Vesuvius erupted, killing thousands. And the following year, a terrible fire ravaged the streets of Rome.

Titus is still having to deal with the fallout of both of these calamities, but he’s taken the responsibility in stride. He’s known as a benevolent ruler, calm, friendly, and fair. Many believe Rome will rise to great heights under his supervision. But, today, it appears that the promising futures of both Rome and Titus are uncertain. 

After journeying to his family’s villa in the Sabine Hills with his brother, Domitian, Titus has fallen ill. His face is flushed, his body weak, and he’s spent the day in bed with what looks like a fever. He hopes rest is all he needs, but he can’t ignore that his immense fatigue only seems to be getting worse.

The emperor’s staff circulate around the villa, bringing water, ice, and anything else that might ease Titus’s discomfort. Amid the hive of activity, Domitian observes his older brother’s deterioration from a distance, his expression unreadable as he stares at the bedridden Titus.

For as long as he can remember, Domitian has lived in the shadow of his charismatic brother. Under their father Vespasian’s rule, Domitian was given little power of his own. But Titus became the Emperor's right-hand man. And when Vespasian passed away, there was no question who would succeed him. Domitian forced a smile as he pledged allegiance to Titus as the new Emperor. He hoped his brother would at least give him more opportunity to lead than their father did. But, while many of their relatives received public appointments of significance, Domitian did not.

Now, however, it seems that Domitian may finally receive the power he has felt deprived of for so many years. As the hours pass, Titus only becomes more ill. His staff crowd into his chamber, keeping a close eye on the emperor, their faces growing solemn as his breathing turns shallow. 

The only one who seems immune from anxiety is Domitian. While others fret over Titus, Domitian sits quietly in the corner of the room. When he does rise from his seat, the servants make room for Domitian at his brother’s side. But to their surprise, Domitian doesn’t join them. Instead, he walks out of the room, leaving the villa and his ailing brother behind as he heads back to Rome.

In Domitian’s absence, Titus’s health continues to decline. And within 24 hours, Rome’s beloved leader Titus is dead. The next day, the Senate proclaims Domitian as a new Emperor. And the young man who for so long has stood in the shadows, now takes center stage.

But the transition is far from smooth. Rumors spread throughout the corridors of the palace, and streets of Rome, each more audacious than the last: was it really a sudden illness that took Titus? Or was there a more sinister plot? Some wonder if external enemies were involved, while others hint at treachery from within.

Amid the whispers, one is especially persistent: that Titus was actually poisoned by his own brother Domitian.

As the days pass, news of these conspiracies reach Domitian. Shadows of doubt and paranoia begin to cloud his mind. He watches senators, generals, and even his close confidants, with growing suspicion. In the great game of power, trust is a luxury he feels he cannot afford.

And although the allegations against Domitian are never proven, they are an inauspicious start to the controversial reign of a leader who will divide opinions. As Domitian takes charge of Rome, some will call him brutal, others will say he rooted out corruption and brought order to chaos. But either way, Domitian will be a man intent on seizing the reins of power with both hands.

Act Two

It’s 86 CE in Rome, almost five years after Domitian became Emperor.

As the new ruler steps out into glorious sunshine, his golden crown gleams, catching the eyes of his audience at the newly-built Stadium of Domitian. The crowd roars as they see their Emperor emerge, eager for the day's entertainment to begin. 

The stadium is Domitian’s newest gift to the people of Rome. It’s the city’s first permanent venue for competitive athletics. But, with a capacity of 30,000, it’s also a symbol of his Domitian's grandiosity and power. After a tumultuous start to his reign, Domitian wants to make himself popular with the people, and this arena is a good start. 

Today, the stadium opens to the public, and thousands of voices cry out in delight as various athletic spectacles unfold before them. Clouds of dirt kick up from the arena floor as horses tear around a track. The races are followed by battles - brutal and bloody. They range from one-on-one combat to opposing groups of gladiators fighting each other to the death. It’s entertainment at its most raw and visceral, and those in attendance love Domitian for allowing them to experience it.

Games like these cost a small fortune, but they become a regular fixture in the calendar under Emperor Domitian. As well as this brand new stadium, Domitian makes his mark all across the city. Rome is in desperate need of repair following the fires that marked his brother’s short reign and the job of rebuilding falls to Domitian.

But not all of Domitian’s gestures are so selfless. While Rome is still struggling to rebuild its infrastructure, the emperor orders the imperial palace to be torn down and a new residence to be built just for him. 

Now that he rules the Empire, Domitian also wastes little time in flexing his political muscles. He all but strips the Senate of its power, moving from a democratic republic, towards something more like a monarchy. He makes more and more decisions in state matters himself, ignoring the Senate’s advice. He even goes as far as to instruct people to refer to him as ‘master and god.’

Not satisfied with merely strengthening his grip on the capital city, Domitian also develops grand plans for the Empire. He now wields the full force of Rome’s armies and sends legions of soldiers to the farthest reaches of the Empire and beyond, strengthening Rome’s borders and pushing further into unconquered lands.

Domitian asks a lot of his forces, but they love him. Not only does he spend large periods of time among the soldiers, but he also becomes the first Emperor in imperial history to give them a pay rise. In part, thanks to this loyalty and devotion, between 83 CE and 89 CE, Roman forces win significant victories against foes that have been a thorn in their side since long before Domitian came to power.

And the emperor’s achievements are not limited to the battlefield. Despite the huge costs of rebuilding Rome, funding the army, and providing lavish games for the people, under Domitian, the Roman economy is a healthy one. Rigorous taxation policies balance the books and fund his dream of restoring the glory of Rome.

With a growing list of achievements, Domitian is reveling in his unexpected role as a popular and accomplished Emperor. But not everyone agrees with his policies and approach. He’s often criticized by those in the Senate for the way he rules. While some see his games and public banquets as philanthropic gestures, others see them as unnecessary luxuries.

Domitian is well aware of those who speak up against him. At times, he sees their opinions as not just opposition, but bordering on treasonous. And increasingly, he becomes convinced that some of his detractors might be plotting against him.

In January, 89 CE, his suspicion becomes a reality, when the governor of one of the empire’s provinces, along with two full legions of Roman soldiers, revolt against the Empire. The specific reason for the rebellion is unknown. And it’s crushed in only twenty-four hours, but it’s enough to confirm Domitian’s feelings of growing dissent.

As a result, Domitian becomes more harsh in his rule, even less trusting than before. He becomes convinced that people are out to get him, and no one seems exempt from his paranoia – not even his own family.

During the remainder of his reign, Domitian will execute his cousin and numerous Senators and high-ranking officials. He will exile and imprison many others, including philosophers, poets, and artists. Then, suspecting adultery, he will sentence his wife to death.

But her execution will never come to pass. With Domitian’s relationship with the Senate and his subjects at an all-time low, his wife and officials throughout Rome will come together to conspire against the emperor, hatching a plan to put an end to Domitian’s reign of terror.

Act Three

It’s late morning on September 18th, 96 CE.

Emperor Domitian, slouches in a padded chair, as he presides over the trial of a soothsayer. The man claims to have interpreted a number of signs that point to an imminent change in Emperor.

Disturbed by this fortune teller, Domitian’s response is to sentence the man to death. The soothsayer is led away to his fate, while Domitian heads to his own quarters to take a bath.

But the fortune teller is just one of several people who have warned Domitian of misfortune. Another prophecy has foretold that he will die at midday on an unspecified date. So when he arrives to his quarters and checks the time with a servant, Domitian is relieved to hear it’s already well past noon. The emperor takes comfort in believing that he’s dodged death once again. But, in reality, Domitian is in more danger than ever.

Minutes later, there’s an unexpected knock on his chamber door. Domitian tenses at the sound, but relaxes as soon as he opens the door and sees the familiar face of Stephanus, one of his trusted servants.

Domitian ushers Stephanus inside and the servant hurriedly hands him a letter, claiming it contains details of a plot to assassinate him. Alarmed, Domitian scans the page, trying to absorb its contents.

But with the emperor’s eyes fixed on the letter, Stephanus can begin his real mission. Before Domitian can even register what’s happening, Stephanus pulls out a hidden dagger and stabs the emperor. Domitian tries to fight back, but several co-conspirators rush through the open door and join the attack. Within seconds, Domitian lies fatally wounded on the floor, his family’s dynasty fading in time with his slowing heartbeat.

In the aftermath, Nerva, one of Domitian’s advisors will become emperor, ushering in a new age of well-liked rulers, known as the Five Good Emperors of Rome. The Senate and all the people of Rome will embrace this period of peace and prosperity. It’s an age of stability at home, and expansion of the empire, the likes of which Rome has rarely seen – and it is all born out of the bloody assassination of Emperor Domitian on September 18th, 96 CE.

Outro

Next on History Daily. September 19th, 1940. A Polish resistance fighter embarks on a dangerous mission when he volunteers to infiltrate Auschwitz concentration camp.

From Noiser and Airship, this is History Daily, hosted, edited, and executive produced by me, Lindsay Graham.

Sound design by Mollie Baack.

Music by Lindsay Graham.

This episode is written and researched by Rob Scragg.

Executive Producers are Alexandra Currie-Buckner for Airship, and Pascal Hughes for Noiser.